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thelinguist.uberflip.com JUNE/JULY The Linguist 21 FEATURES the Portuguese translation uses a combination of some of these devices. The language evades a T or V commitment by using an infinitive in Perguntar à Anna when inviting the customer to consult their Automated Online Assistant; and it employs third-as- second-person combined with zero-subject elsewhere in the text, as in Quer conhecer as últimas novidades e promoções da IKEA? ('Would you like to know about IKEA's latest products and promotions?'). N may be the most reliable dimension for solidarity, be it conveyed by unmarked single 'you', by semantic developments in T and V pronouns, or by morphological and syntactic manipulation. Interestingly, the English address pronoun 'you' once occupied the V pole of a T-V binary but it has been extended to become the universal form, avoiding non- reciprocal interaction be it based on age, wealth, birth or any other possible social divide. On the other hand, having dispensed with a T-V pronominal differentiation, English now relies on a different type of encoder for T and V meanings. Indeed, in the same way that languages with a T-V pronominal distinction can find strategies for the N effect, English – despite its single N pronoun – is by no means deprived of T and V encoders. These are found nominally rather than pronominally, through the addition of expressions such as 'love' (T) and 'sir/madam' (V), as well as the choice of first names and diminutives (T) in preference to surnames and titles (V). Obviously, nominal T and V are also available in languages that have more than one address pronoun. In this case they are not essential T and V providers but a source of shades of meaning. The presence or absence of a nominal expression can respectively polarise or depolarise the T-V pronominal contrast. Without an additional V nominal expression, for instance, vous and Sie can be seen to occupy the N dimension in some instances; but not when expressions such as Monsieur and Mein Herr are added. If T and V are able to perform as N in favour of solidarity, it is also true that they are vulnerable to power attempts creeping in. This can be observed, for example, in initial interaction. A first contact in V – e.g. Sir (expression of respect) or Mrs Jones (title and surname) – may encourage a domineering addressee to reply in T, thus creating an asymmetric positioning to his/her advantage. A first contact in T – e.g. Bob (nickname); 'love' (expression of endearment) – may be ambiguous. It can be taken as being motivated by solidarity, but it may also spell out a power-driven posture from the addresser, particularly if circumstances make it difficult for the addressee to reply in T. There is no doubt that N-V-T dynamics can be intricate. In conclusion, without N we cannot fully appreciate the English unmarked, single address pronoun. Trying to evaluate 'you' within the T-V binary can easily result in misunderstanding. It may be assumed that, since this pronoun cannot be V, it must be T; but in reality it was originally V, not T, and today functions neither as V or T but as N. In languages with a T-V pronominal differentiation, the N dimension will not stand out, as in the English case, but may be obtainable through strategies to bypass T-V alternatives. Finally, nouns are also important T and V encoders. Pronouns and other forms of address can be challenging for people who are professionally involved in their decoding and encoding between different languages and cultures. The good news is that this complex sociolinguistic area is receiving due attention, including my own work on the subject. 1 Other authors have written groundbreaking material, among them Michael Clyne, John Hajek, Heinz Kretzenbacher, Catrin Norrby, Doris Schüpbach and Jane Warren. There is now also an organisation devoted to the advancement of academic studies in the field, the International Network of Address Research (INAR), which was founded in 2012. 2 The initiative has been enabling a growing pool of useful findings and debate on different languages. This will certainly contribute to an improved understanding of current trends and will help to find solutions to specific problems, such as those so often faced by interpreters and translators. Notes 1 Cook, M, 2014, 'Beyond T and V – Theoretical Reflections on the Analysis of Forms of Address' in American Journal of Linguistics, 3(1); www.nvtlinguistics.com 2 www.inarweb.wordpress.com A first contact in T can be taken as being motivated by solidarity but it may also suggest a power-driven posture LAYERS OF MEANING The Spanish website of M&S, which uses the T form (left); and IKEA's Portuguese website (far left), which employs strategies that aim for an N form