The Linguist

18 The Linguist Vol/64 No/2 ciol.org.uk/thelinguist FEATURES Saihong Li considers how translators have moulded Shakespeare's plays to resonate with Chinese audiences S hakespeare, one of the most enduring figures in global literature, continues to transcend barriers of time, language and culture. In China, he has captivated readers and audiences since Macbeth was introduced to the country in 1919, serving both as a gateway to Western literary traditions and as a complex challenge for translators. As Alexa Huang notes, translating Shakespeare's works involves "not just a local adaptation of a global icon but a reciprocal exchange that reshapes both the source and the target cultures". 1 The question of translatability – how faithfully Shakespeare's language, poetic forms and thematic depth can be represented in a fundamentally different linguistic and cultural framework – lies at the heart of these efforts. Though his works were popularised in 1919, the earliest introduction of Shakespeare to China often occurred through Western missionaries and relay translations. Notable examples include Lin Shu's 海外奇谭 (Hai Wai Qi Tan; Strange Tales from Overseas, 1903), an interpretive translation from Charles and Mary Lamb's Tales from Shakespeare, and Tian Han's relay translation from a Japanese version of Hamlet, which appeared in 1921. Lin Shu's approach was shaped by his "aesthetic preferences" and desire to "ignite the curiosity and aspirations of readers". 2 This allowed him to transform Shakespeare's titles into entirely new names that captured the essence of the plays' main plots and conflicts while appealing to Chinese readers. For instance, The Tempest became 飓引 (Ju Yin; 'A tempestuous cause'), Romeo and Juliet was rendered as 铸情 (Zhu Qing; 'forged love') and Twelfth Night appeared as 婚诡 (Hun Gui; 'marriage tricks'). These early adaptations were often abridged and simplified, focusing on certain themes while omitting complex poetic structures to ensure the tales were accessible and intriguing to Chinese audiences. Direct translations into Chinese emerged in the 1920s, marking a pivotal moment in establishing Shakespeare's place within Chinese literary culture. Zhu Shenghao, a key figure of this period, translated 31 plays, 27 of which were published before 1949 despite wartime challenges. His translations skilfully balanced fidelity to the original language with readability, blending poetic elegance and Chinese literary sensibilities, 3 and establishing Shakespeare's relevance in Chinese discourse. The Maoist era marked a significant shift in Shakespeare's reception. His works were reinterpreted through a Marxist-Leninist lens, with plays repurposed to critique feudalism and capitalism. Productions of The Merchant of Venice emphasised class struggle and the moral corruption of the ruling elite, aligning with the political narratives of the time. Translators and directors often adapted Shakespeare's language and themes to serve educational and propagandistic purposes, illustrating how ideological filters can shape the translatability of his works. These adaptations demonstrated the flexibility of Shakespeare's plays to take on new meanings in different cultural and political contexts. 4 Oh, Luomiou, Luomiou: blending styles In the post-Mao era, beginning in the 1980s, Shakespeare translation and scholarship expanded dramatically as China's cultural and intellectual landscape opened up. The Chinese Shakespeare Society, founded in 1984, and the Journal of Shakespeare Studies, established in 1986, provided platforms for scholarly engagement. New translations brought a modern linguistic perspective. Gu Zhengkun's translation of Hamlet's famous soliloquy, "To be, or not to be, that is the question", as 生存 还是毁灭, 这是一个问题 ('to live or to die, this is a question') concisely captured the existential dilemma using a modern Chinese idiom. 5 Liang Shiqiu's rendering of Juliet's iconic "O Romeo, Romeo, wherefore art thou Romeo?" as 哦, 罗密欧, 罗密欧! 你为何是罗密欧? ('Oh, Luomiou, Luomiou, why are you called Luomiou?') reflected a poetic sensibility while preserving the line's lyrical beauty. 6 This era also saw innovative performances that blended Shakespearean drama with traditional Chinese art forms. Macbeth was adapted as a Kunqu opera, where the haunting rhythms and stylised movements of traditional Chinese performance enhanced the play's themes of ambition and guilt. 7 Such creative interpretations demonstrate how Shakespeare's works can be both translatable and untranslatable: while universal themes of power, betrayal and moral conflict remain intact, their expression undergoes profound cultural transformation. Chinese productions often incorporate local performance traditions, such as Peking opera or Kunqu opera, to present Shakespearean narratives in a familiar aesthetic context. The texts are deeply rooted in Elizabethan England's social, religious and political contexts, which often make the references unfamiliar or irrelevant to a Chinese audience. Translators frequently replace biblical allusions or feudal imagery with references to Confucian, Daoist or Buddhist traditions. For example, Hamlet's "Something is rotten in the The Bard of China

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